Chemical Imaging of Pharmaceuticals in Biofilms for Wastewater Treatment Using Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry.

The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment is a global water quality challenge for several reasons, such as deleterious effects on ecological and human health, antibiotic resistance development, and endocrine-disrupting effects on aquatic organisms. To optimize their removal from the water cycle, understanding the processes during biological wastewater treatment is crucial. Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging was successfully applied to investigate and analyze the distribution of pharmaceuticals as well as endogenous molecules in the complex biological matrix of biofilms for wastewater treatment. Several compounds and their localization were identified in the biofilm section, including citalopram, ketoconazole, ketoconazole transformation products, and sertraline. The images revealed the pharmaceuticals gathered in distinct sites of the biofilm matrix. While citalopram penetrated the biofilm deeply, sertraline remained confined in its outer layer. Both pharmaceuticals seemed to mainly colocalize with phosphocholine lipids. Ketoconazole concentrated in small areas with high signal intensity. The approach outlined here presents a powerful strategy for visualizing the chemical composition of biofilms for wastewater treatment and demonstrates its promising utility for elucidating the mechanisms behind pharmaceutical and antimicrobial removal in biological wastewater treatment.

Pharmaceuticals and other contaminants of emerging concern in Admiralty Bay as a result of untreated wastewater discharge: Status and possible environmental consequences.

Considering how the impact of human activity in Antarctica is growing, the aim of this study was to conduct the first assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), other emerging contaminants (ECs), and antibiotic resistance genes present in the western shore of the Admiralty Bay region of King George Island. In total, more than 170 substances were evaluated to assess the potential environmental risks they pose to the study area. The major evaluated source of pollutants in this study is discharged untreated wastewater. The highest PPCP concentrations in wastewater were found for naproxen (2653 ngL-1), diclofenac (747 ngL-1), ketoconazole (760 ngL-1), ibuprofen (477 ngL-1) and acetaminophen (332 ngL-1). Moreover, the concentrations of benzotriazole (6340 ngL-1) and caffeine (3310 ngL-1) were also high. The Risk Quotient values indicate that azole antifungals (ketoconazole), anti-inflammatories (diclofenac, ibuprofen) and stimulants (caffeine) are the main groups responsible for the highest toxic burden. In addition, antibiotic resistance genes integrons (int 1) and sulphonamide resistance genes (sul 1-2) were detected in wastewater and seawater. These results indicate that regular monitoring of PPCPs and other ECs is of great importance in this environment. Additionally, the following mitigation strategies are suggested: (1) to create a centralised record of the medications prescribed and consumed in situ (to improve knowledge of potential contaminants without analysis); (2) to use more environmentally friendly substitutes both for pharmaceuticals and personal care products when possible (limiting consumption at the source); and (3) to apply advanced systems for wastewater treatment before discharge to the recipient (end-of-pipe technologies as a final barrier).

Physicochemical characterization and thermal behavior of hexosomes containing ketoconazole as potential topical antifungal delivery system.

OBJECTIVE: The main purpose of this article is to show the valuable characteristics that liotropic liquid crystal systems possess to be employed as new drug delivery systems. SIGNIFICANCE: Colloidal aqueous dispersions of lyotropic liquid crystal mesophases such as the identified as cubosomes and hexosomes, and so on, have received considerable attention due to their unique nanostructures and their thermodynamic properties, which provide the potential as a sustained drug release matrix. Additionally, their large surface area and similarity with the liquid crystal structures of intercellular lipids of stratum corneum enhances the interaction with the skin and mucous, increasing the potential for topical drug delivery efficiency of biopharmaceutical class II drugs as the antifungal ketoconazole. METHODS: This article presents the results in morphological characteristics, particle size, ζ potential, flow, thermal behavior and drug release studies of hexosomes containing ketoconazole (LHLC-K) obtained with glycerol monooleate, propylene glycol monolaurate, poloxamer, and water mixtures. RESULTS: This colloidal system exhibits a Newtonian-type flow and a hexagonal nanostructure with a median particle size of 107 ± 20 nm and ζ potential of +4.45 ± 0.50 mV. Through differential scanning calorimetry studies, the LHLC-K demonstrated physical and chemical stability for more than six months and mesophasic thermal reversibility between 10 and 50 °C. Finally, LHLC-K releases ketoconazole following a kinetics described by the first order model. CONCLUSIONS: Physicochemical properties of the hexosomes containing ketoconazole are important for topical mycosis treatment administration, conditions of storage, and for its incorporation into the formulation of semi-solid dosage forms.

Investigation of dextrin-based synergistic system with chiral ionic liquids as additives for enantiomeric separation in capillary electrophoresis.

In this paper, two spiral structure CILs, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium(T-4)-bis[(2S)-2-(hydroxy-κO)-3-methyl-butanoato-κO]borate(BMIm+BLHvB-) and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium (T-4)-bis[(αS)-α-(hydroxy-κO)-4-methyl-benzeneacetato-κO]borate (BMIm+BSMB-)were applied to evaluate their potential synergistic effect with dextrin for CE enantiomeric separation. The established dextrin-based synergistic system with CILs as additives showed good separation performance towards four tested drugs, including duloxetine, ketoconazole, sulconazole and citalopram. It was also observed that significantly improved separation and selectivity for tested analytes were achieved in CILs/dextrin synergistic system compared to single dextrin system. Primary parameters, such as the concentration of CIL, dextrin concentration, buffer pH and applied voltage, were systematically investigated to optimize the enantiomeric separation with BMIm+BLHvB-/dextrin as model system. Finally, the method of Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) was exploited to further elucidate the influence of experimental parameters on the synergistic effect.

Identification of endocrine disrupting chemicals acting on human aromatase.

Human aromatase is the cytochrome P450 catalysing the conversion of androgens into estrogens playing a key role in the endocrine system. Due to this role, it is likely to be a target of the so-called endocrine disrupting chemicals, a series of compounds able to interfere with the hormone system with toxic effects. If on one side the toxicity of some compounds such as bisphenol A is well known, on the other side the toxic concentrations of such compounds as well as the effect of the many other molecules that are in contact with us in everyday life still need a deep investigation. The availability of biological assays able to detect the interaction of chemicals with key molecular targets of the endocrine system represents a possible solution to identify potential endocrine disrupting chemicals. Here the so-called alkali assay previously developed in our laboratory is applied to test the effect of different compounds on the activity of human aromatase. The assay is based on the detection of the alkali product that forms upon strong alkali treatment of the NADP+ released upon enzyme turnover. Here it is applied on human aromatase and validated using anastrozole and sildenafil as known aromatase inhibitors. Out of the small library of compounds tested, resveratrol and ketoconazole resulted to inhibit aromatase activity, while bisphenol A and nicotine were found to exert an inhibitory effect at relatively high concentrations (100µM), and other molecules such as lindane and four plasticizers did not show any significant effect. These data are confirmed by quantification of the product estrone in the same reaction mixtures through ELISA. Overall, the results show that the alkali assay is suitable to screen for molecules that interfere with aromatase activity. As a consequence it can also be applied to other molecular targets of EDCs that use NAD(P)H for catalysis in a high throughput format for the fast screening of many different compounds as endocrine disrupting chemicals. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cytochrome P450 biodiversity and biotechnology, edited by Erika Plettner, Gianfranco Gilardi, Luet Wong, Vlada Urlacher, Jared Goldstone.

Phytotoxicity of wastewater-born micropollutants--Characterisation of three antimycotics and a cationic surfactant.

Sewage sludge applied to soil may be a valuable fertiliser but can also introduce poorly degradable and highly adsorptive wastewater-born residues of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) to the soil, posing a potential risk to the receiving environment. Three azole antimycotics (climbazole, ketoconazole and fluconazole), and one quaternary ammonium compound (benzyldimethyldodecylammonium chloride, BDDA) that are frequently detected in municipal sewage sludge and/or treated wastewater were therefore characterised in their toxicity toward terrestrial (Brassica napus) and aquatic (Lemna minor) plants. Fluconazole and climbazole showed the greatest toxicity to B. napus, while toxicity of ketoconazole and BDDA was by one to two orders of magnitude lower. Sludge amendment to soil at an agriculturally realistic rate of 5 t/ha significantly reduced the bioconcentration of BDDA in B. napus shoots compared to tests without sludge amendment, although not significantly reducing phytotoxicity. Ketoconazole, fluconazole and BDDA proved to be very toxic to L. minor with median effective concentrations ranging from 55.7 µg/L to 969 µg/L. In aquatic as well as terrestrial plants, the investigated azoles exhibited growth-retarding symptoms presumably related to an interference with phytohormone synthesis as known for structurally similar fungicides used in agriculture. While all four substances exhibited considerable phytotoxicity, the effective concentrations were at least one order of magnitude higher than concentrations measured in sewage sludge and effluent. Based on preliminary hazard quotients, BDDA and climbazole appeared to be of greater environmental concern than the two pharmaceuticals fluconazole and ketoconazole.

Development and Validation of Stability-Indicating Method for the Simultaneous Determination of Ketoconazole and Beauvericin in Pharmaceutical Tablets.

In this work, a stability-indicating high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed and validated for the simultaneous analysis of ketoconazole (KCZ) and beauvericin (BEA) as well as their degradation products in the combination tablets. KCZ is a synthetic broad-spectrum antifungal agent with the risk of hepatoxicity. However, it was found that the combined use of KCZ and BEA in their low dose had not only maintained the antifungal activity of KCZ but also significantly reduced the liver toxicity. The method development was started from forced degradation studies including acidic, basic, oxidative, thermal and photolytic degradations in the solution mixtures of KCZ and BEA. The forced degradation study results indicate that hydrolysis and oxidation were the major degradation pathways for KCZ while BEA mainly decomposed under basic hydrolytic condition. The newly developed HPLC method was validated according to the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines with respect to specificity, linearity, precision, accuracy, limits of detection and quantification and robustness. The method validation results indicate that the new HPLC method could be successfully applied in the simultaneous detection and quantitation of KCZ and BEA and their degradation products. For example, the accuracy and the precision of the method were determined by a recovery study at 80, 100 and 120% of the tablet dosage levels. The recovery was found to be 99.6-100.2 for both analytes with a relative standard deviation of no more than 1.2% (n = 5) at any concentration level. This new method can be used for further development of various KCZ and BEA combination drug products.

Investigation of phase diagrams and physical stability of drug-polymer solid dispersions.

Solid dispersion technology has been widely explored to improve the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble compounds. One of the critical drawbacks associated with this technology is the lack of physical stability, i.e. the solid dispersion would undergo recrystallization or phase separation thus limiting a product's shelf life. In the current study, the melting point depression method was utilized to construct a complete phase diagram for felodipine (FEL)-Soluplus® (SOL) and ketoconazole (KTZ)-Soluplus® (SOL) binary systems, respectively, based on the Flory-Huggins theory. The miscibility or solubility of the two compounds in SOL was also determined. The Flory-Huggins interaction parameter χ values of both systems were calculated as positive at room temperature (25 °C), indicating either compound was miscible with SOL. In addition, the glass transition temperatures of both solid dispersion systems were theoretically predicted using three empirical equations and compared with the practical values. Furthermore, the FEL-SOL solid dispersions were subjected to accelerated stability studies for up to 3 months.

The effect of polymeric excipients on the physical properties and performance of amorphous dispersions: Part I, free volume and glass transition.

PURPOSE: To investigate the structural effect of polymeric excipients on the behavior of free volume of drug-polymer dispersions in relation to glass transition. METHODS: Two drugs (indomethacin and ketoconazole) were selected to prepare amorphous dispersions with PVP, PVPVA, HPC, and HPMCAS through spray drying. The physical attributes of the dispersions were characterized using SEM and PXRD. The free volume (hole-size) of the dispersions along with drugs and polymers was measured using positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS). Their glass transition temperatures (Tgs) were determined using DSC and DMA. FTIR spectra were recorded to identify hydrogen bonding in the dispersions. RESULTS: The chain structural difference-flexible (PVP and PVPVA) vs. inflexible (HPC and HPMCAS)-significantly impacts the free volume and Tgs of the dispersions as well as their deviation from ideality. Relative to Tg, free volume seems to be a better measure of hydrogen bonding interaction for the dispersions of PVP, HPC, and HPMCAS. The free volume of polymers and their dispersions in general appears to be related to their conformations in solution. CONCLUSIONS: Both the backbone chain rigidity of polymers as well as drug-polymer interaction can impact the free volume and glass transition behaviors of the dispersions.

Simultaneous determination of probe drugs, metabolites, inhibitors and inducer in human plasma by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry and its application to pharmacokinetic study.

Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 (UGT1A1) are important enzymes responsible for the metabolism of many xenobiotics. To investigate their induction and inhibition properties, administering probe drugs and monitoring their concentration in plasma under the effects of inducers/inhibitors is the gold standard method. A rapid and sensitive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed for simultaneous quantification of midazolam, raltegravir (probe drugs for CYP3A4 and UGT1A1), their major metabolites, 1'-hydroxymidazolam, 1'-hydroxymidazolam glucuronide and raltegravir glucuronide, rifampicin (inducer), ritonavir and ketoconazole (inhibitors). Analytes were extracted from 100µl of plasma using solid-phase extraction followed by chromatographic separation on a reversed-phase C18 column (50mm×2.1mm, particle size 1.8µm). The mass spectrometer was operated under positive ionization mode. Excellent linearity (r(2)≥0.995) was achieved for all. The method was validated and found to be accurate (88-111%), precise (CV%<13) and selective. Matrix effect was acceptable (88-118%) and analytes recovery was reproducible (60-95%). Analytes in plasma were also found to be stable in the autosampler (6°C for 48h) and after two freeze-thaw cycles. We have developed a robust analytical method to simultaneously quantify probes, inducer and inhibitor of important drug metabolism enzymes. The method was successfully applied in a clinical study to investigate the degree of induction and inhibition of CYP3A4 and UGT1A1 among ethnic groups in Singapore.

Identification of priority pharmaceuticals in the water environment of China.

In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the trace-level contamination of pharmaceuticals in the water environment all over the world. Considering a large number of pharmaceuticals used, it is crucial to establish a priority list of pharmaceuticals that should be monitored and/or treated first. In the present study, we developed a ranking system based on the pharmaceutical consumption, removal performance in the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and potential ecological effects, and applied to the situation of China. 39 pharmaceuticals, which had available consumption data and also been reported previously in the WWTPs of China, were selected as candidate pharmaceuticals. Among them, seventeen pharmaceuticals were considered as priority pharmaceuticals, out of which, erythromycin, diclofenac acid and ibuprofen, had the high priority. Compared with other literatures, we found that some pharmaceuticals given concerns to globally should also be included in the priority list in China; while some pharmaceuticals, not mentioned in other literatures, such as cefalexin, ketoconazole, should be also given prior consideration in China. Among all the therapeutic classes, antibiotics, which were grossly abused in China, contributed the most to the priority pharmaceuticals. However, priority antibiotics accounted for only 32% of candidate antibiotics, while 71% and 100% of the candidate anti-inflammatory and antilipidemic respectively were identified as the priority pharmaceuticals, indicating that antibiotics might be overanxiously considered in the previous studies on their behaviors in the WWTPs of China.

Distribution, behavior and fate of azole antifungals during mechanical, biological, and chemical treatments in sewage treatment plants in China.

Residue of azole antifungals in the environment is of concern due to the environmental risks and persistence. Distribution, behavior, and fate of frequently used azole antifungal pharmaceuticals were investigated in wastewater at two sewage treatment plants (STPs) in China. Fluconazole, clotrimazole, econazole, ketoconazole, and miconazole were constantly detected at 1-1834 ng L(-1) in the wastewater. The latter four were also ubiquitously detected in sewage sludge. Fluconazole passed through treatment in the STPs and largely remained in the final effluent. On the contrary, biotransformation and sorption to sludge occurred to the other azoles. Ketoconazole was more readily bio-transformed, whereas clotrimazole, econazole, and miconazole were more likely to be adsorbed onto and persisted in sewage sludge. Lipophilicity plays the governing role on adsorption. The highest concentrations in the raw wastewater were observed in winter for the azole pharmaceuticals except for fluconazole. The seasonal difference was smoothed out after treatment in the STPs.

Differential pulse polarographic investigation of the antifungal drugs itraconazole, ketoconazole, fluconazole and voriconazole using a dropping mercury electrode.

The electrochemical reactions of the antifungal drugs itraconazole, ketoconazole, fluconazole and voriconazole have been investigated by differential pulse polarography (DPP) using a dropping mercury electrode (DME). All investigations were carried out in Britton-Robinson buffer solutions and methanol with varying pH values. Ketoconazole and itraconazole both showed a reduction peak with a potential between -1.5V and -1.6 V. Stable and reproducible conditions for the determination of itraconazole (c = 1 x 10(-7) M) were found within the pH range of 6.0 to 8.0 and for the determination of ketoconazole (c = 5 x 10(-8) M) within pH 6.0 to 7.0. Voriconazole showed a reduction peak with a peak potential of -1.7 V (c = 1 x 10(-5) M) within the pH range of 8.0 to 10.0. In the case of fluconazole no electrochemical activity was found.

Rational use of antioxidants in solid oral pharmaceutical preparations

Antioxidants are currently used as efficient excipients that delay or inhibit the oxidation process of molecules. Excipients are often associated with adverse reactions. Stability studies can guide the search for solutions that minimize or delay the processes of degradation. The ability to predict oxidation reactions in different drugs is important. Methods: This study was conducted to assess the rational use of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), sodium metabisulfite (SMB), propyl gallate (PG) and cysteine (CYS) in tablet formulations of simvastatin and ketoconazole. These antioxidants were evaluated according to stability parameters and the relationship between efficiency of the antioxidant and chemical structure of the drugs. Results were compared with DPPH tests and computational simulations. BHT was most efficient regarding simvastatin stability, and the most effective BHT concentrations for maintaining stability were 0.5 and 0.1%. In relation to ketoconazole, SMB was most efficient for maintaining content and dissolution profile. The evaluation by DPPH showed that the largest percentage of absorbance reduction was observed for PG, while SMB proved most efficient and had lower consumption of DPPH. The same pattern was observed, albeit with lower efficiency, for the other lipophilic antioxidants such as BHT and BHA. The results of the molecular modeling study demonstrated that electronic properties obtained were correlated with antioxidant activity in solution, being useful for the rational development of liquid pharmaceutical formulations but not for solid oral formulations. This study demonstrated the importance of considering stability parameters and molecular modeling to elucidate the chemical phenomena involved in antioxidant activity, being useful for the rational use of antioxidants in the development of pharmaceutical formulations.

Atualmente, antioxidantes são usados como excipientes eficientes, que retardam ou inibem o processo de oxidação de moléculas. Excipientes são frequentemente associados a efeitos adversos. Estudos de estabilidade podem ajudar na busca por possíveis soluções para minimizar ou retardar os processos de degradação. A habilidade de prever as reações de oxidação em diferentes fármacos é importante. O estudo foi conduzido com o objetivo de avaliar o uso racional de hidroxianisol butilado (BHA), hidroxitolueno butilado (BHT), metabissulfito sódico (SMB), galato de propila (PG) e cisteína (CYS) em formulações de comprimidos de sinvastatina e cetoconazol. Eles foram avaliados por parâmetros de estabilidade e pela relação entre a eficiência dos antioxidantes e a estrutura química do fármaco. Os resultados foram comparados com testes de DPPH e simulações em computador. BHT foi mais eficiente com relação a estabilidade da sinvastatina e às concentrações mais eficientes para manutenção de estabilidade foram 0,5 e 0,1%. Com relação ao cetoconazol, SMB foi mais eficiente em manter o conteúdo e o perfil de dissolução. A avaliação por DPPH mostrou que o maior percentual de redução de absorção foi observado para PG, enquanto que SMB mostrou ser mais eficiente e consumir menos DPPH. A mesma tendência foi observada com menos eficiência em todos os outros antioxidantes lipofílicos como o BHT e BHA. Os resultados do estudo de modelagem molecular demonstraram que as propriedades eletrônicas obtidas podem ser correlacionadas com a atividade antioxidante em solução, sendo útil para o desenvolvimento racional de formulações farmacêuticas líquidas, mas não para formulações sólidas orais. Este estudo demonstrou a importância de considerar parâmetros de estabilidade e modelagem molecular para elucidar os fenômenos químicos envolvidos na atividade antioxidante, sendo úteis para o uso racional de antioxidantes no desenvolvimento de formulações farmacêuticas.

Levaduras causantes de onicomicosis en cuatro centros dermatológicos mexicanos y su sensibilidad antifúngica a compuestos azólicos / Onychomycosis-causing yeasts in four Mexican dermatology centers and their antifungal susceptibility to azolic compounds

Antecedentes. Las levaduras representan la segunda causa mundial de infecciones fúngicas ungueales, donde Candida albicans y Candida parapsilosis son las dos especies más frecuentes. Objetivos. Conocer la frecuencia de especies de levaduras y su sensibilidad antifúngica in vitro, obtenidas de pacientes con manifestaciones clínicas sugestivas de onicomicosis. Métodos. En México se realizó un estudio prospectivo en pacientes atendidos en cuatro centros de atención dermatológica de 2004 a 2007. El diagnóstico clínico fue corroborado por examen directo y cultivo. La especie de levadura fue determinada por pruebas morfológicas y bioquímicas. A cada aislamiento se le determinó la sensibilidad a ketoconazol, itraconazol y fluconazol mediante el método de microdilución en caldo (documento M27-A2). Resultados. Se obtuvieron 166 aislamientos levaduriformes; las especies más frecuentes fueron C. parapsilosis (31,9%), C. albicans (22,4%) y Candida guilliermondii (12,7%). De todos los aislamientos, 51 mostraron resistencia a uno o varios de los azoles probados: 33 a itraconazol, 12 a ketoconazol y 6 a fluconazol. Fue notable que los 4 aislamientos de Candida glabrata fueron resistentes a los tres compuestos azólicos; C. guilliermondii y Candida famata fueron resistentes a itraconazol en el 42,9% y en el 54,5%, respectivamente. Conclusión. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran la importancia de identificar al agente etiológico y realizar pruebas de sensibilidad para evitar fracasos terapéuticos en las onicomicosis(AU)

Background. Yeasts represent the second cause of nail fungal infection in the world, and Candida albicans and Candida parapsilosis are the two most common species. Objectives. To determine the yeast species frequency and their in vitro antifungal susceptibility, obtained from patients with clinical features suggestive of onychomycosis. Methods. A prospective study was carried out in four dermatological care centers in Mexico from 2004 to 2007. Clinical diagnosis was corroborated by direct examination and culture. The yeast species was determined by morphological and biochemical tests. An antifungal susceptibility test to ketoconazole, itraconazole and fluconazole by the broth microdilution method was performed on each isolate (document M27-A2). Results. One hundred sixty-six yeast isolates were obtained; the most frequently found species were C. parapsilosis (31.9%), C. albicans (22.4%) and Candida guilliermondii (12.7%). Of all isolates, 51 showed resistance to one or several of the azole compounds: 33 to itraconazole, 12 to ketoconazole and 6 to fluconazole. It was remarkable that the four Candida glabrata isolates were resistant to the three azole compounds; C. guilliermondii and Candida famata were resistant to itraconazole in 42.9% and 54.5%, respectively. Conclusion. The results obtained show the importance of identifying the aetiological agent and antifungal susceptibility testing in order to avoid therapeutic failures in onychomycosis(AU)

Application of validated RP-HPLC method for simultaneous determination of docetaxel and ketoconazole in solid lipid nanoparticles.

Docetaxel has significant single agent activity in prostate cancer and ketoconazole also has activity as a second line hormonal agent. In vitro, ketoconazole is synergistic with some chemotherapy agents by enhancing the intracellular retention of the cytotoxic agent. A potential drug-drug interaction exists though between docetaxel and ketoconazole because both agents are metabolized hepatically by the cytochrome P-450 system. Hence, a nanoparticulate system was formulated by loading both drugs for tumor targeting. Assay and in vitro release of the formulation were conducted by developing simple, precise, accurate, and validated analytical method for simultaneous determination docetaxel and ketoconazole using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The RP-HPLC method was developed using Waters Symmetry C(18) column (25 cm × 4.5 mm, 5 µm) with a mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile and 0.2% triethylamine pH adjusted to 6.4 (48:52, v/v) at flow rate of 1 mL/min. Intra-day and inter-day variations were less than 2% over the linearity range, 0.5-20 µg/mL. The proposed two methods were successfully applied for the determination of docetaxel and ketoconazole in solid lipid nanoparticles.

Optimization of a novel method based on solidification of floating organic droplet by high-performance liquid chromatography for evaluation of antifungal drugs in biological samples.

In this study, a simple, rapid, and highly efficient liquid-phase microextraction method based on solidification of floating organic droplet was coupled with high performance liquid chromatography-photo diode array detection (HPLC-PDA) for determination of ketoconazole, clotrimazole, and miconazole as antifungal drugs. Central composite design (CCD) was used for optimization of several factors affecting the extraction efficiency. The optimized conditions were established to be 550 rpm for stirring rate, 35 min for extraction time, 57 °C for extraction temperature, 8.5 for solution pH, 10 µl for organic solvent volume, and 7% (w/v) of NaCl for ionic strength. Limit of detections (LODs) of the extraction method ranged from 0.01 to 0.1 µg L(-1) and the linear dynamic ranges (LDRs) ranged from 0.1 to 300 µg L(-1) for the three antifungal drugs. Relative standard deviations (RSDs) of the proposed method were 5-11%. Preconcentration factors in the range of 306-1350 were obtained at extraction time of 35 min. Finally, performance of the proposed method was evaluated for the extraction and determination of the drugs' levels in microgram per liter in samples and satisfactory results were obtained.

High-performance thin-layer chromatographic determination of ketoconazole in pharmaceutical formulations.

A high-performance thin-layer chromatographic method was developed for the determination of ketoconazole. The sample was separated on a silica gel 60 F254 plate and developed in ethanol-acetone-1.0 mol l-1 H2SO4 by means of an automatic multiple-development system. The area of the spot was quantified by a TLC scanner at a wavelength of 298 nm. A linear calibration curve was established over the range of 3-20 µg/ml of ketoconazole, with a correlation coefficient of 0.9992. The relative standard deviations for intraday and interday precisions, for three replicate determinations, were found to be 1.72% and 0.69% for 5 µg/ml and 2.18% and 0.94% for 10 µg/ml of ketoconazole, respectively. The average percentage recoveries of ketoconazole shampoos (Nora, Kenalyn, and Nizoral) and ketoconazole creams (Nizoral, Fungasin, and Ketazon) were found to be 96.10, 97.06, and 99.58, and 96.77, 97.26, and 95.74, respectively. This method has been applied to the determination of ketoconazole in various pharmaceutical dosage forms. Common excipients in formulations do not interfere. This method is simple, precise, accurate, and inexpensive. It should be used for routine analysis.

Determination of commonly used azole antifungals in various waters and sewage sludge using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

Sensitive and reliable methods have been developed and validated for determination of commonly consumed azole antifungal pharmaceuticals (clotrimazole, econazole, ketoconazole, and miconazole) and biocides (propiconazole and tebuconazole) in various waters and sewage sludge. Solid phase extraction (SPE) combined with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine the azole antifungals in waters. Azole antifungals in sewage sludge were extracted with ultrasonic-assisted extraction, followed by SPE cleanup and UHPLC-MS/MS detection. Quantification was performed by internal standard calibration in multiple reaction monitoring mode. Recoveries were mostly in the range of 52-110% with relative standard deviations generally within 20%. Method quantification limits were 0.5-6 ng L(-1) in waters and 3-9 ng g(-1) dry weight (dw) in sewage sludge, respectively. The methods were applied to determine the azole antifungals in wastewater, river water, sediment, and sewage sludge sampled from the Pearl River Delta, China. Clotrimazole, ketoconazole, and miconazole were widely detected at low ng L(-1) in waters, low ng g(-1) dw in river sediment, and low microg g(-1) dw in sewage sludge. The methods can provide valuable tools for investigating occurrence and fate of the azole antifungals in the environment.

Screening of antimycotics in Swedish sewage treatment plants--waters and sludge.

Concentrations of six pharmaceutical antimycotics were determined in the sewage water, final effluent and sludge of five Swedish sewage treatment plants (STPs) by solid phase extraction, liquid/solid extraction, and liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. The antimycotics were quantified by internal standard calibration. The results were used to estimate national flows that were compared to predictions based on sales figures. Fluconazole was the only one of the six investigated antimycotics that was detected (at concentrations ranging from 90 to 140 ng L(-1)) in both raw sewage water and final effluent. Negligible amounts of this substance were removed from the aqueous phase, and its levels were below the limit of quantification in all of the analyzed sludge samples. In contrast, clotrimazole, ketoconazole and econazole were present in all of the sludge samples, at concentrations ranging between 200 and 1000 microg kg(-1), dry weight. There were close correlations between the national measured and predicted antimycotic mass flows. Antimycotic fate analysis, based on sales figures, indicated that 53% of the total amount of fluconazole sold appeared in the final effluents of the STPs, while 1, 155, 35, 209 and 41% of the terbinafine, clotrimazole, ketoconazole, econazole and miconazole sold appeared in the digested dewatered sludge.